Explain how one multi-governmental organization has led to a loss of sovereignty.

Discuss the interrelationships between global interactions and changes in technology.

Candidates would be expected to define their chosen multi-governmental organization as a grouping of nations, providing as their example the EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, ASEAN or others.

The example chosen will influence the answer, as some MGOs are merely free trade areas while others have a common external tariff, in the case of the EU a common market and fuller economic union with shared currency and freedom of movement for workers. Thus an answer based around the EU will most likely assert that sovereignty has indeed been lost, while one based around NAFTA may address the phrase “loss of sovereignty” more reservedly.

Accept a wide interpretation of MGO to include the IMF, UN, G20, NATO etc. However, such answers may be self-limiting and unlikely to gain the higher bands as it may be hard to display a loss of sovereignty.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

One view is that technology drives global interactions. Historically, improved transport and communications networks have enabled the flows that allow global interactions to occur [Guide 2]. Expect details about cheap air flights driving global tourism [Guide 5], the internet driving the growth of virtual communities (Facebook), spatial diffusion into new markets (for example, mobile uptake in Africa and Asia). Various forms of technology are a key factor explaining the growth in power and influence of TNCs (with their ability to “knit” places together as part of a productive division of labour, outsourcing or through their attempts to build markets around the world) [Guide 3]. Also credit references to “technology transfer” by TNCs and application of the shrinking world concept/time–space compression [Guide 2].

Another reciprocal view exists, which is that globalization drives technology. It is global consumerism [Guide 5] which drives innovation, outsourcing and the technologies needed to make it all possible. Demand from people for faster internet (HD TV on demand etc.) leads to large TNCs re-investing profits into research and development hubs. Some answers might even touch on the role of international conflict in driving military technologies (roots of the internet lie here). Or the need for diasporas to maintain communication [Guide 5].

To attain band E, there must be some acknowledgment or suggestion of an “interrelationship” rather than just “relationship”, and the reciprocal relation should be mentioned or strongly implied.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Accept a wide interpretation of “technology” (for example, global diffusion of medicare, farming techniques etc.)

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some good answers chose the EU to exemplify loss of sovereignty in many policy areas, including currency, human rights, immigration and other important aspects of governance. Pleasingly, details of the recent Eurozone crisis appeared in some scripts, with impressive analysis of the outcome for Greece that tackled head on the issue of loss of sovereignty.

Another successful approach was to choose the IMF as the chosen example and provide details of how the acceptance of structural adjustment programmes has represented a partial loss of sovereignty for nations like Tanzania for whom the receipt of much-needed loans has been conditional upon privatization of infrastructure and services (and all under the tutelage of EU-based consultancy firms).

Several examples were seen of very poorly prepared candidates writing about TNCs rather than MGOs; why they did not simply choose a different question is unclear.

Some excellent, wide-ranging answers thoughtfully examined how technology had led to, or accelerated, a range of global interactions. Candidates who understood the nature of the paper 3 assessment were able to plan a wide-ranging response that considered, in turn, political, economic, social and cultural interactions (showing in each case how ICT or containers and cheap flights assisted with global-scale processes and interactions). In contrast, some weaker responses merely listed (often for several pages) a timeline, or catalogue, of technologies before asserting that these all contributed to, or constituted, a shrinking world. While this showed good general knowledge of technology and gadgets, it was hardly the best way to tackle a synthetic geography assignment and tended to be a self-limiting approach.

Very, very few grasped the "interrelationship" suggested by the question. This ideally required some acknowledgment that technologies do not come "from nowhere" but are rather the outcome of powerful global actors actively seeking time–space compression in an attempt to increase product sales, turnover times, break into new markets and undertake corporate mergers. The role played by the research and development units of TNC headquarters (part of the international division of labour) was not appreciated. Thus the reciprocal profit motive that drives the technical creativity of TNCs such as Apple, Microsoft and Google was almost entirely neglected.

Using examples, explain how financial flows transfer wealth between places.

“Glocalization is the most important reason why some transnational corporations (TNCs) have grown in size and influence over time.” Discuss this statement.

Financial flows (based on geography subject guide) include loans, debt relief/repayment, international aid, FDI, profit leakage and remittances (do not credit “goods”). The spatial focus could be the global core and periphery (although these terms are dynamic and contested and a variety of interpretations are acceptable, so long as named examples are also included). Some answers may additionally explain that there are legal and illegal (criminal, informal) mechanisms of money transfer; or can explain how “transfer pricing” and offshore tax havens are used by TNCs to transfer money between places.

Better answers may provide superior evidence/case study details of the wealth flows (quoting dollar values or percentage contributions to GDP, etc). They may also consider the varied directions of the flows (whether towards core/MEDCs or towards periphery/LDCs). They may even consider flows at the local scale too (eg may consider how international aid or FDI flows transfer wealth towards an LDC, yet do not necessarily reach the poorest people/parts of that state).

For band C, at least two financial flows must be described with some exemplification of one flow (either of places or the size/scale of the flows).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the major financial flows (may look at how a wider range operate; may provide much more detailed evidence for a smaller range)
• or some explanation of how some major financial flows can operate in different directions (may even consider different scales).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to define glocalization, providing examples of its effectiveness as a strategy for bridging/building new markets [Guide 5].

A fully synthetic and evaluative answer should debate the statement with reference to other, possibly more important, factors. These could include growth in technology associated with globalization, for example, containers or ICT [Guide 2] or the growth of MGOs allowing easier access to markets, possibly triggering mergers and acquisitions (for example, Cemex and domestic cement companies within NAFTA trade bloc) [Guide 6]. The economic factors that triggered global shift (such as cheap labour) are important and the role of outsourcing could be discussed [Guide 3]. Other strategies employed by global brands may also be addressed that explain diffusion over time and space, such as the promotion of consumerism through brand advertising [Guide 5].

Some candidates may conceptualize TNCs as a broad category that includes energy companies and agribusinesses, which would not be expected to adopt glocalization to the same extent as branded commodity providers and the service industry (global banking).

For band C, at least one glocalization strategy must be described and its effectiveness commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either other more detailed reasons for TNC growth (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, using at least one other theme synthesized from the subject guide, probably the role of technology/transport)
• or some more explicit discussion of how glocalization helps some TNCs (perhaps not all) to develop their size and influence (eg cultural acceptance is gained in varied geographical contexts/new markets) over time.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse the increasing influence of one multi-governmental organization you have studied.

“Global interactions bring negative effects, rather than positive effects, to every part of the world.” Discuss this statement.

Likely examples include the EU, NAFTA or the BRICS group (which has had annual meetings since 2009). Also credit other examples of global governance with a multi-governmental character, such as the IMF, World Bank, G8, OPEC, NATO, OECD. Also credit the UN, or UN-sponsored agencies. An analysis of the influence of a specific global conference or agreement/protocol (climate change meetings in Kyoto, Doha, etc) could reach band D/E provided that it is explicitly shown to be the product of multi-governmental collaboration, organization or debate (if not, limit such responses to band C).

Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) influence the way citizens, civil society and businesses operate by relaxing barriers to certain types of global flow/movement (migrants, tourists, goods, capital, etc). A key issue is the diminishing effectiveness of political borders.

Alternative approaches might analyse the political influence that MGOs have over the governance of sovereign states:

• EU states must agree to adopt legislation from European Parliament (some may even know of the growing influence of Germany as a driver of EU policy affecting Greece during Eurozone crisis)
• IMF insistence on economic reform/adjustments in countries seeking loans, sometimes critiqued as a neo-colonial form of influence
• UN human rights rulings/war tribunals/peace-keeping operations
• NATO or other military alliances and their actions
• the macro-economic influence of OPEC during the 1970s (another approach might be to analyse why OPEC’s influence has ceased to increase since)
• the growing influence of the BRICS group (especially Chinese and Indian investment in African countries).

At band D, expect either description of some range of ways in which an MGO is influential, or some chronology/explanation of why its influence is increasing.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Three likely ways to discuss the statement (there may be others) are as follows:

• one way is to assess the net effect for a range of generic global concerns (“every part of the world” is thus interpreted as “the world”)
• another way is to agree that there are few positives associated with global interactions, notably environmental effects, and to then address the extent to which particular places, especially isolated/wilderness regions [Guide 7], have suffered
• alternatively, candidates may offer a place-by-place or regional audit eg compares/discusses South America, Africa, USA, etc.

Likely themes for discussion include:

• financial flows [Guide 3] and workplace exploitation, balanced against the alleviation of poverty
• cultural interactions can bring homogeneity but also bring new forms of culture, and hybridity [Guide 5] but this must be balanced against the loss of authentic differences and the ways in which adopted cultural traits enable “exploitative” or consumerist TNCs to gain leverage to penetrate new markets, etc
• migration brings a range of effects for host and source regions [Guide 5]; these should be carefully weighed and, ideally, a genuine evaluation given (rather than listed costs and benefits)
• environmental harm is likely to be a major theme [Guide 4]; some may argue that accelerated climate change stems from accelerated global interactions (accept this view), opening the way for a thoughtful discussion of predicted changes (including some beneficial ones, eg thermal growing season).

Good answers may provide some discussion of the extent of these effects (the interrogation of whether “every place” is affected) and may focus on “un-globalized” societies eg Amazonian tribes [Guide 7], ocean pathways for pollution and plastic-strewn coral atolls, Antarctic beaches, etc.

At band D, there should be either a detailed explanation of a variety of effects or a more critical discussion of the net balance/spread of effects.

For band E, expect both.

Some excellent answers were seen that addressed “influence” in multiple ways. Trade, geopolitics and migration were common themes that candidates using the EU or NAFTA explored. These were far and away the most popular examples, although a small minority wrote about Mercosur. Middle-ability candidates were sometimes shaky on important details, such as the number of EU member states.

Well-informed and well-revised candidates were likely to attain band D, as this was achievable by synthesizing a series of “positive” and “negative” case studies of almost any variety and concluding that global interactions have brought “mixed” results. Far fewer candidates displayed the ability to produce a nuanced evaluation of the statement that was more sensitive to the concepts of geographical place and scale. Where band E marks were awarded, candidates had generally progressed beyond a mere “costs and benefits” approach and were able to focus on the veracity of the statement that every part of the world is adversely affected by global interactions. They debated explicitly whether effects such as the spread of English language, or diffusion of plastic pollution in the oceans, are truly globalized phenomena or not.

Using examples, explain the relationship between transport innovation and reduced friction of distance.

“Every country will eventually lose its distinctive national identity as a result of global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Friction of distance is the barrier to the exchange of goods, services, ideas created by slow/limited/expensive transport. Over time, increased connectivity through transport has reduced friction of distance (changing our perception of time/space barriers).

Candidates may explore the relationship through the use of a timeline, and perhaps a diagram, showing how transport times have fallen as a result of successive transport “revolutions” (bicycle, boat, car train, ’plane, etc). Also credit accompanying technologies eg refrigeration for perishables and intermodal transport. Candidates may be familiar with the associated geographical concept of time–space convergence (in other words, we perceive that we inhabit a “shrinking world” as distant places “feel” nearer). Done well, this could be sufficient for the higher mark bands.

A different approach might be to look at more detailed case studies of particular technologies and their application (eg the speed with which flowers from Kenya are flown to Europe; or the speed with which containers can bring manufactured goods from EPZs in China to the USA). This approach is sufficient for band D even if the “relationship” is not particularly clear.

Finally, the subject guide specifies that candidates should have studied speed and capacity changes for two types of transport network. They might draw on this as part of their answer. However, they should be careful to focus on the reduced friction of
distance as the network is modernized, or extended into areas that were previously “switched off” (and thus took a longer time to reach).

Credit may be given for some discussion of the role that telecom networks play in transporting data and information, “eradicating” the friction of distance altogether.

Band C answers are likely to describe some specific details of transport history, but with little/no development of “friction of distance” (besides saying it has lessened).

At band D, expect either a clearer explanation of the changing relationship over time (may use the concept of time–space convergence) or effective use of detailed examples to explain how transport connects distant places together with reduced
travel time.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be national (or group) identity although credit can be given for groups within a nation eg Amish (USA), Welsh (UK), tribes (Amazon). Discussion of a diaspora’s “national” identity (eg the identity of the Chinese in USA) may also be credited. Expect candidates to take a range of approaches and to hold a range of views about what factors or processes make a place distinctive/less distinctive.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• a range of issues can be discussed pertaining to cultural dilution/cultural imperialism/immigration/multiculturalism [Guide 5]. Different cultural traits may be discussed eg language, diet, music, religion, etc
• evidence may be cited in support of the proposition that increasing cultural homogeneity is unavoidable/irreversible, for instance international migration or the spread of branded commodities [Guide 5] or the homogenization of urban/cultural landscapes [Guide 4]
• sovereign states risk losing political autonomy due to their membership of MGOs (especially the case for the EU) or in relation to wealth/leverage of TNCs [Guide 6], influence of IMF/World Bank [Guide 3]. 

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• many countries have experienced a resurgence in nationalism/regionalism [Guide 6], for instance as evidenced by programmes of nationalization (Bolivia) or attempts to limit the dominance of English (in France’s case)
• there are instances of states or societies opting out of globalization/isolationism (eg, China’s stance on internet access; North Korea or until recently Myanmar; Amish communities in USA) [Guide 7]
• glocalized/hybrid outcomes can still be highly distinctive or unique [Guide 7]. 

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• national identity has many aspects, not all of which are threatened, eg, by MGO membership [Guide 6]
• other foci for identity may be becoming more important than national identity for many people, eg, diaspora identity.

At band C, some impacts on national/group identity/culture should be described and linked with global interactions such as migration, information flow etc. 

Band D should either provide a wider and more balanced discussion of the statement or offer a more critical discussion of what is meant by “distinctive national identity”.

At band E, expect both.

“Friction of distance” and transport innovation appears to be a well-understood and well-learned area of the curriculum. Even the weakest candidates were able to provide a short descriptive account of different modes of transport improving over time (in terms of the reduced time taken to move people or goods between locations). Many had learned the topic in advance in some depth, with accompanying locational details and data. This was not, however, always sufficient to reach the highest markband available. Some conceptual sophistication was also expected, such as clear, well-explained linkages with the concept of time–space convergence (or time–space compression). Alternatively, greater geographical knowledge was expected of how, in context, the friction of distance has lessened for specific global flows, such as commodity movements, thereby linking specific locales (such as the flower farms sited around Lake Naivasha, Kenya and the flower markets near Old Street, London, England). In contrast, band C answers often provided greater detail of, say, the technical specifications of jet engines, yet went on to merely assert that this allows “people” to “move around the world quicker”.

Many candidates performed a synthesis of the following topics: the influence of the McDonald’s corporation, national membership of trade blocs (especially the EU), the spread of English at the expense of native languages, the erosion of national traditions as a result of indigenous peoples’ contact with tourists, the dissemination of music and film through the internet, the growing homogenization of world cities, the prosperity of diaspora populations, and the resurgence of nationalism as a reaction to globalization (some candidates showed good contemporary knowledge of political movements in the EU). Arranged in a way that provided both support for, and rejection of, the statement, this was usually sufficient for band D. However, the sophistication with which these complex ideas were handled usually left a lot to be desired in work around the C/D boundary (see comments below on how performance could be improved in the future).

Explain the causes and consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries and/or waste disposal.

“All societies, wherever they are, enjoy the benefits of a shrinking world.” Discuss this statement.

Polluting industries include manufacturing or mining operations with a large footprint and a polluting or dangerous character in the absence of regulation (examples might include Apple’s contractors in China). There are also international movements of waste (for recycling or disposal), for example, UK wastes to China (recycling) and European waste taken by contractors to Ivory Coast (dumping). The oil industry has brought polluting operations to many territories. While this is not strictly a “relocation”, the benefit of the doubt should be given to accounts of the expansion/diffusion of polluting industries (ie consequences of oil pollution in new deep water sites, for example, Gulf of Mexico, new sites in Niger delta, should be credited). Also credit eutrophication linked to agro-industry/agribusiness, etc.

The causes might include a quest for cheap sites (thus higher profits) and expect explanations to include details of labour costs, lack of red tape, etc. Weaker answers are likely to neglect causes, or provide simple assertions only (eg “there’s too much waste nowadays”).

Consequences for both physical environments (landscape, ecosystems) and people should be addressed. Some may be positive (eg recycling waste as a resource; FDI and its multiplier effects). Long-term litigation and quest for justice could even be a theme that is explored.

For band C, at least one cause and one consequence must be described (or a wider range of ideas listed) with some exemplification (of either one relocation or waste disposal example).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the causes and consequences (do not expect balance; case study consequences are likely to be more detailed and may use more than one example/industry, though this is not required)
• or some explanation of how a single incidence of relocation/disposal can have more varied consequences for different places/people (eg origin and destination), though less supporting detail is given.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

“Shrinking world” (time-space compression) should be explained and related to different ICT and transport technologies [Guide 2]. Increased migration can be credited as a symptom of a shrinking world (because migrants make use of transport). Trade blocs/MGOs, eg EU, can play a supporting role (because the removal of border controls removes intervening obstacles to migration/transport).

Possible economic benefits derived from connectivity include: more profitable TNCs, with work opportunities for outsourcing locations and locations in receipt of FDI [Guide 3] especially when long view is taken (eg signs of factory reform in Bangladesh). A range of sociocultural benefits can be explored that relate to the sharing of global media, the growth of social networks, etc [Guide 5]. The ease with which migrant remittances can be wired home (or money transferred via mobiles) might be explored [Guide 5]. There are many other benefits that can be mentioned, for example, access to branded commodities [Guide 5].

There are, of course, cases where the statement may not be true and societies remain non-globalized/disconnected. Expect examples of indigenous people, isolated tribes, or variation within societies, for example, subsistence farmers [Guide 7].

Another counterargument would be the “one-sided” benefits of connectivity, wherein poorer connected places are exploited as low-wage production sites, possibly suffering environmental problems [Guide 4]; the sociocultural reaction against globalization, and movements aiming to limit shrinking world effects in some way, for example, increased food localism or the resurgence of nationalism [Guide 6, 7]. Indigenous people may be victims, not beneficiaries, of global interactions [Guide 5]. A current affairs focus might be on internet privacy/rights.

For band C, the shrinking world/globalization (may not distinguish) must be described and its benefits commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either both sides of the argument are addressed (some societies/places benefit, some do not not), displaying some synthesis of a range of ideas, mostly (but not always) linked to the idea of a shrinking world/technology and transport
• or some more explicit discussion of how “benefits” are not enjoyed by all people within the same society/not everyone agrees what is beneficial (eg some perspectives see globalization as a sovereignty threat).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how the actions of world trading organizations and financial institutions (such as the International Monetary Fund) influence global financial flows.

Discuss the economic and environmental consequences of more people choosing to buy locally produced food and goods rather than globalized products.

AO1/2 Indicative content
Credit reference to the IMF, World Bank, WTO, New Development Bank (NDB), China Development Bank. Also credit trading blocs/MGOs such as ASEAN, APEC, NAFTA and EU/EEA.

Financial flows may include:

• loans (with structural adjustment programmes)
• commodities (with the WTO encouraging free trade)
• remittances (linked with EU rules; or development policies of the World Bank)
• movements of capital and FDI (made easier by EU or NAFTA, etc)
• aid flows (providing this can be linked with the work of world trading organizations and financial institutions).

Credit other valid flows and institutions.

Good answers might provide data and evidence for financial flows or they may offer a structured (AO4) explanation of how different institutions influence different types of flow. Another approach might be to explain financial flows in ways that show they are sometimes interrelated and could influence one another (lending can help a country to develop, in turn attracting FDI; this in turn may encourage migration and remittances).

For band C (4–6), two financial flows should be outlined and linked weakly with the influence/actions of one or more financial institutions.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, well-evidenced analysis of

• either two or more detailed financial flows
• or detailed actions/ influence of different named institutions

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content

Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:

• fewer food miles
• reduced carbon/ecological footprint / climate change mitigation
• less trade/financial flows between core/periphery (de-globalization)
• renewed economic growth in localities where local production is renewed
• rejection of globalization production / TNCs / falling profits for agribusiness
• reduced interdependency between countries
• protectionism / isolation / less need for MGOs.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around different kinds of geographical consequences (eg consequences for old producer and new producer regions; costs and benefits for different groups/places)
• might systematically discuss the effects of changes for different types of globalized product.

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant economic and/or environmental themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide (both economic and environmental)
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Analyse the relationship between globalization and the resurgence of nationalism in one country you have studied.

“Global interactions have made the world a richer place but not a fairer place.” Discuss this statement.

The resurgence of nationalist tendencies within states can link with international migration (notably the EU, also southern states of USA), a politicized loss of jobs to outsourcing (for example, USA to China) and broader concerns with cultural dilution (for example, the Facebook ban in Pakistan; state internet censorship to some degree can be found in 40 countries).

For bands D and E, the focus should clearly be on global rather than local interactions that do not reflect the dynamics of the world economy and/or its media (thus the labour migration of workers from Mexico to a global hub such as the USA is highly relevant; refugees seeking refuge from drought in a neighbouring country is not).

Nationalism itself assumes many forms – from overt racism/xenophobia to less sensational controls, for example, migration caps. Alternative interpretations of nationalism could include state-sanctioned hostile reaction to TNCs (for example, Chavez seizing assets of TNCs, or another “resource nationalism” case study) or clampdowns on media access sanctioned on national security grounds.

An account that lacks details of the manifestation of the growth of nationalism can still access the higher bands if the multiple “threats” brought by global interactions are well analysed. Discussion of only one country is required. In-depth analysis of a single reaction could reach full marks if the answer is developed, shows relevant understanding and uses terminology well.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Richer:

Global participation has increased over time and core areas [Guide 3] have clearly expanded since the days of the Brandt Report. Developing peripheries [Guide 3] are places where a large emerging middle class can be found apparent, for example, NICs/BRICs. This economic fact does not need to be contested/debated. However, it could be by suggesting the 2008 credit crunch caused the expansion of world wealth to temporarily halt/reverse. It is also possible to critique other notions of “wealth”, such as cultural [Guide 5] or ecological wealth [Guide 4], although, again, this is not a requirement.

Fairer:

This point does need to be debated, as it is controversial. Hundreds of millions have been lifted out of poverty in China although India is still a very divided society. It can be argued that global financial flows [Guide 3] have redistributed money on a regional level as world GDP has risen, with Asia, Brazil and some African (“African lion”) states clearly prospering at the aggregate level of GDP. But the benefits are still very uneven. Numbers in poverty in Saharan Africa have doubled over 30 years. Some financial flows (TNC profits, mining revenues etc.) are re-directed at core regions [Guide 3]. Good answers may debate the difficulties in finding a universally accessible definition of “fair” (or “wealth” for that matter).

There are also “unfair” losses for the environment [Guide 4] in many places (an account of transboundary pollution could be employed here) and for local cultures as languages are lost etc. [Guide 5]. There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits.

To access band D, the answers should be well balanced. For band E, there should be an evidenced conclusion that has critically interrogated the idea of “fairness” with respect to the changing distribution of the growing total amount of global wealth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some very strong answers examined the phenomenon of nationalization as an expression of "resource nationalism" (wherein the state re-asserts control of strategic resource operations, such as oil refineries owned by TNCs, as witnessed in recent years in Bolivia and Venezuela). Other candidates provided a thorough account of the xenophobic reaction to multiculturalism in EU nations (seen as a proxy for, or subset of, globalization). Contrastingly, weaker answers showed little understanding of what "nationalism" means, or made simple assertions that racism is now a problem in the UK, for example.

Less confident candidates sometimes chose to simply agree that the world is indeed an unfair place and did not, or could not, offer a counter-argument, whereas the strongest candidates knew plenty about the pros and cons of the actions and impacts of the IMF, the World Bank and SAPs (from strand 3 of the guide) and could therefore mount a proper assessment of how the opening up to global interactions of China and India (among others) had impacted on aggregate levels of wealth as well as on distributions (at varying geographical scales). The best answers provided strong evidence to support their arguments and could offer a wide interpretation of "fair" that allowed them to build a wider synthesis of ideas.

Explain how global core areas (hubs) can be distinguished from peripheral areas.

Examine the geographical consequences of international outsourcing.

Candidates would be expected to define “global core areas/hubs” as significant places that provide a focal point for global flows and activities. They are places where major diaspora groups may be found or may be identified as source regions either for contemporary cultural diffusion (for example, Seattle’s computer industries) or economic imperialism (for example, Washington). The scale at which hubs can be identified is open to interpretation. Small cities like Cambridge (UK) are hubs, but so too are megacities such as Sao Paulo and small states including Monaco and Luxemburg.

Arguably, entire nations such as Singapore and South Korea could be described as hubs at which point the term hub is almost synonymous with “core” in world systems analysis. But an appropriate “core and periphery” analysis in 2011 should not simply echo 1970s World Systems theory. Responses that do not acknowledge this and do not examine more than a simple “MEDC–LEDC” worldview (for example, by at least acknowledging a semi-periphery of emerging economies/NICs) should not progress beyond band C. (Within bands D and E, a good explanation of a fuller range of characteristics could compensate for a more limited description of the hub/periphery pattern.)

At bands D and E, answers need to be focused on how such places can be distinguished from other places and should not just assert that they exist. People and organizations in hubs will display high levels of global participation which could be measured using KOF or AT Kearney indices. They may also host major diasporas or can be mapped as source regions for key “globalized” cultural traits including language (such as English or Spanish). Mapping the head offices of large TNCs is another route of inquiry. Other routes could include a ranking of the competitiveness of financial centres, airports, ports, internet bandwidth availability, reliance on agriculture.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Outsourcing should be clearly defined as the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them [Guide 3]. “Geographical consequences” of outsourcing can encompass economic, political, social, cultural, environmental, geopolitical and demographic themes at varying scales, for both host and source regions. Outsourcing occurs across all sectors of industry from agriculture to high-tech research. It can be a complex affair when strings of sub-contractors (both upstream and downstream linkages) are part of the picture.

Improvements in ICT are an important consequence (due to the need for enhanced videoconferencing capability etc.) and not merely a cause of outsourcing [Guide 2, Guide 3]. So too are trade blocs (MGOs), insofar as businesses will lobby for expanded tariff-free trade areas within which they may outsource at lower cost to themselves [Guide 6].

At a national and local (city region) scale, a key theme must be the reaction to loss of jobs in “source” economies [Guide 7], but growth for emerging “host” economies. Sweatshop workers may be cast as “victims” or beneficiaries of global capitalism in this account according to the case studies used (outsourcing includes “white collar” work in Bangalore, for instance) or the candidate’s political convictions (although exploitation needs to be evidenced and not simply asserted). TNC shareholders may be recognized as being among the real winners of outsourcing [Guide 3].

Environmental aspects are likely to be a popular theme, notably in relation to pollution [Guide 4]. However, high band answers should make it clear that the problems result from outsourcing (so unreliable sub-contractors are the issue) and not simply the internationalization of trade.

It may not always be clear whether genuine outsourcing or a firm’s own division of labour is being discussed (for example, as a cause of de-industrialization in developed countries). The benefit of the doubt should be given and a band D mark could be awarded to answers that are insecure on the precise meaning of outsourcing but are strong on the varied geography of global shift.

There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits. Depth might compensate for lack of breadth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This question produced a disappointing set of responses on the whole. Too many candidates merely asserted, wrongly, that a simplistic MEDC–LEDC divide still exists. There was next to no acknowledgment of globally important hubs such as Mumbai or Sao Paulo or other key settlements in emerging economies (or peripheral "LEDCs" as they were portrayed in most accounts, despite the BRIC group’s key role in driving global GDP growth today). Overall, the cohort showed poor understanding of contemporary economic geography and the global pattern of hub regions.

The use of the word "hub" in the guide, and in this question, ought to be a clear signal to centres that the core–periphery literature dating from the 1970s is not, in itself, sufficient background reading for the current global interactions course. Candidates who relied exclusively on this outdated framework found themselves erroneously describing a global system within which a global periphery, that includes China and India, continues to provide raw materials for the manufacturing firms found in developed countries. Examiners were left wondering whether, in other contexts, such candidates would be able to explain the rise of the Asian tigers and BRIC economies, or the de-industrialization of the old global core.

Thus a widespread lack of familiarity with the concept of emerging economies as new global hubs (which must surely come from examining the latest KOF or Kearney indices) was seen. There was little mention of the activities of the world’s financial hubs (which have triggered the global economic turndown that now surrounds us).

The concept of scale was clearly the biggest problem. There was a lack of comprehension that world cities in middle-income and low-income nations can nonetheless be global hubs. Effective teaching about globalization and global interactions needs to move beyond the nation state as the only frame of reference for patterns of wealth and connectivity.

Outsourcing is clearly defined in the guide. Many themes pertaining both to foreign direct investment and also outsourcing, such as financial flows, transboundary pollution and the factors encouraging the growth of multi-governmental organizations are scattered through the guide. Good candidates who were familiar with the synthetic nature of the part (b) essay mode of assessment rose to the occasion. The best answers came complete with plans that included positive and negative (or short-term and long-term) impacts, sub-divided into themed consequences such as economic [Guide 2/3]), environmental [Guide 4], political [Guide 6],  and social [Guide 7].

Well-informed candidates were thus able to highlight how global networks of outsourcing have helped drive the trend towards regional trade bloc integration. Elsewhere, outsourcing was seen as a factor that can be responsible for poor health and safety standards (some asserted, perhaps correctly, that this was the cause of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill). Outsourcing of back office functions to India was a popular theme, whose consequences were seen as being both positive (rising incomes) and sometimes negative (long and unsociable hours for call centre workers).

Some discussed the social reaction/anti-globalization movements against outsourcing (linked with de-industrialization, for example, of US manufacturing hubs). A few even argued that outsourcing has introduced new kinds of geographical risks for TNCs who find their supply chains disrupted by recent hazards such as Thai floods, Japan’s tsunami and Icelandic ash clouds. This is a truly synthetic theme and one that future candidates could be encouraged to explore further.

In contrast, weaker candidates were uncertain as to the exact nature of outsourcing and were clearly not able to differentiate between outsourcing and FDI (for instance, when discussing the relocation of US manufacturing to the Mexican maquiladoras). If a good range of consequences were developed, however, such candidates were still allowed to achieve a sound mark.

Using examples, distinguish between local adoption and local adaptation of globalized cultural traits.

“International migration is the main cause of local opposition to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Using examples, distinguish between local adoption and local adaptation of globalized cultural traits.

A cultural trait is an aspect of culture (way of life/social norms/structure of feeling/habitus). For example, language, diet, clothing, custom, religion. Allow a broad interpretation, such as the adoption of a branded commodity as part of “everyday life” eg McDonaldization / spread of Big Mac.

• Adoption of a trait can take the form of cultural imperialism (where one culture imposes its culture on another eg spread of English and Christianity under British Empire). Some commodities/brands are not sensitive to local conditions and are rolled out in a homogenous way across territories eg Lego.
• Adaptation involves the globalization of culture/commodities, resulting in a hybrid or fusion of local and global. There are many different variants of spoken French or Spanish around the world; localized expressions of the major faiths are found in each continent; food and music fusions are abundant.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to distinguish the terms well, either through use of language or by drawing on more explicit contrasts, perhaps linked explicitly to different kinds of TNC (entertainment or oil, for instance). Another approach might be to comment on how the line may sometimes be blurred between adoption and adaptation, thereby challenging the assumption that it is easy to distinguish. While four billion people have adopted some form of English, on closer inspection there are distinct local adaptions such as “Singlish”. While some may see diversity in adapted McDonald’s menus around the world, skeptics might argue this adaptation is superficial and at heart a uniform product has been adopted.

Do not over-credit explanation of why globalization occurs / is necessary, as this is not asked for. Also, do not credit discussion of the costs and benefits of these processes of change.

Adaptation (globalization) is an aspect of the adoption process (globalization). This means that weaker candidates may have difficulty separating the two. Responses should be marked positively wherever possible if they are well structured and make good use of examples and terminology.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect either some correct but weakly evidenced outlining of both adaptation and adoption or one of these processes outlined well.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either a wider range of examples (perhaps linked to different cultural traits, contexts or sectors of commerce/industry)
• or the distinction between adoption and adaptation (perhaps recognizing the overlap between the two terms).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on local opposition movements. The question suggests that multiple flows/interactions should be addressed, not just migration. International migration may be legal (EU), sometimes illegal (US–Mexico; North Africa–EU); it may involve skilled elites (sports/creative/skilled/professional) or the semi-skilled and low-skilled.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• labour flows [Guide 3]
• opposition to IMF / SAPs [Guide 3]
• reaction against cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism [Guide 6]
• EU migration issues [Guide 6]
• food miles and local sourcing movements [Guide 7].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which discusses different local contexts: concerns with migration in the EU/US may not be shared equally in some LDCs, for instance. Instead, the “imperialistic” actions of TNCs/IMF/US may be of far greater concern eg opposition movements in Niger delta. Middle Eastern contexts could be discussed, including militant/jihadist campaigns against the West (ISIS/IS). Good answers may conclude that the veracity of the statement depends on the local context as much as it does on what aspect of globalization is under discussion.

Some responses may discuss the statement by counter-arguing that migration is supported rather than opposed in some contexts. This may be credited. However, responses which deal only with migration are unlikely to progress beyond band C because they have not synthesized a range of themes from the geography guide. For band D, there should also be some mention of one alternative cause of opposition.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Answers to this popular question were overwhelmingly coherent and correct. Adoption was viewed as a universalizing process bringing cultural homogeneity to places. In contrast, adaptation combines the general (a global commodity or cultural trait) with the particular (local preferences and beliefs). The result is a hybrid, or localized, culture.  McDonald’s was a very popular illustrative choice (it is perhaps a pity that teachers and candidates do not seek out more interesting examples as there is no shortage). Shortcomings in some candidates’ responses included:

• An overly narrow focus on a single example of international migration (an account of Mexican culture being adopted and adapted in the US falls short, strictly speaking, of providing an analysis of global cultural traits).

• Some confusion or insecurity over the meaning of ‘adaptation’ (some took it to mean forced as opposed to voluntary adoption, for instance)

Many candidates wrote extensively about the contemporary reaction against migration in the USA (Donald Trump’s proposed wall across the Mexican border) and throughout Europe (including the rise of right-wing politics in the UK, France and Austria). Some answers made excellent use of contemporary reporting of this topic, framed by the Syrian refugee crisis. Unfortunately, many candidates failed to broaden the remit of their answer to look beyond the migration debate. The question was phrased in a way which required candidates ideally to explore other reasons for resistance to global interactions, as opposed to varying perspectives on the merits or costs of migration. Responses reaching band D were expected to at least touch on some of the wider sovereignty issues which provoke EU or US citizens to voice their opposition to the EU or NAFTA.  A minority of excellent essays explored contemporary reactions against migration in some locales and additionally synthesized a range of case studies dealing with such themes as international trade, environmental degradation, resource nationalism, cultural imperialism and workers’ rights.

Using examples, analyse the role of global interactions in the growth of environmental awareness.

Discuss the reasons for the global diffusion of consumer culture.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• Relevant global interactions may include flows of data and information, such as internet campaigning by civil society organizations. Also credit other types of interaction playing a role, including migrants or tourists who help awareness of issues to diffuse to new places.
• Campaigning may be linked to specific issues, such as transboundary pollution. Environmental awareness is a blanket term covering many issues. Other examples could include global climate change, biodiversity, deforestation, etc.
• Credit the idea that global interactions/globalisation/global development has given rise to environmental challenges (climate change, resource security) and that people are now aware of these issues.

Good answers might offer a structured (AO4) analysis of different types of global interaction (information, commodity flows) or different environmental causes (climate change, biodiversity). Another approach might be to analyse rising environmental awareness in specific contexts, eg the diffusion of environmental awareness to
people in different or new contexts (new consumers in emerging economies).

For band C (4–6 marks), an example of the growth of environmental awareness (such as an NGO campaign or film) will be be outlined and linked weakly with global interactions (such as ICT use, or the global trade flows which cause the issues).

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:

• either the role of a range of global interactions (such as data flows and trade flows)
• or two detailed examples of the growth of environmental awareness/ campaigns.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Consumer culture can be understood as a lifestyle in capitalist societies wherein the consumption of goods and services occupies a central role, in terms of people’s use of leisure time, aspirations, and even their personal identity construction. It is sometimes associated negatively with unsustainable/“throwaway” use of commodities/resources. It can also be associated positively with the progression of people beyond poverty and into the consumer classes. Global diffusion patterns include the growth of consumer classes in emerging economies.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• shrinking world technologies and the global diffusion of media/aspirations [Guide 3]
• financial flows from core to periphery regions [Guide 2]
• poverty alleviation, financial flows and the growth of new markets [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and the power of TNCs to build markets [Guide 5]
• migration, tourism and population movements [Guide 3, 5].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation might:

• critically discuss the relative importance of different reasons/global interactions which either aid diffusion of cultural traits or help to build incomes/markets
• discuss different traits of consumer culture, such as the diffusion of music, fast food, branded commodities, etc
• distinguish between the means of diffusion (eg TNCs) and the reasons why people are receptive to the arrival of “global culture” (eg state policies).

Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of places/countries where consumer culture has not diffused to / has been blocked, such as North Korea. However, some AO3 credit could be awarded for briefly drawing a contrast between liberal states and non-liberal states (such as North Korea) in order to demonstrate the high importance of liberal government as a reason for cultural diffusion.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant reasons/themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes/reasons from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.

Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.

Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.

The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.

However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:

• the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
• largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
• IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
• free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.

Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.

For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.

The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).

Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:

• active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
• shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
• many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
• key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
• growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
• roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
• global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
• poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].

Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse how global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.

Discuss why anti-globalization movements/groups are found in most countries.

Financial flows include movements of money/credit/investment. Strictly, they should not include movements of goods/raw materials, although in reality there is some overlap (investments by TNCs underpin to flows of goods) and where appropriate the benefit of the doubt should be given.

National governments may directly transfer money via international aid programmes (bilateral or multilateral contributions), loans (including sovereign wealth funds) and investment (state-owned companies may purchase assets abroad). They indirectly affect financial flows through their policy-making. This can impact on migration (and thus remittances) and the investment patterns of TNCs (and thus flows of FDI, including investment, acquisitions, outsourcing). National governments also protect their economy from financial currency inflows/outflows. Money laundering is another possible theme.

Also credit use of multi-governmental organizations (and the way flows can accelerate with removal of tariffs/market expansion) and the intergovernmental nature of financial institutions/global governance (IMF and World Bank).

For band C, at least two financial flows should be described with some exemplification and a link established with government(s) (do not expect balance).

For band D, either more than two flows should be analysed and exemplified, or two flows analysed in a structured way that conceptualizes different types of influence (direct and indirect) or governments (national, MGOs, IGOs).

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the ubiquity of resistance to globalization. The statement is not intended as a challenge and no counter-argument is required.

Different reasons for resistance need to be identified; the reasons are not the same for all countries. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of one or more actual anti-globalization movements/groups must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons why globalization might be resisted by people in general).

Possible anti-globalization themes (expect examples of actual movements/groups for some but not all) include:

• anti-globalization movements (named groups are expected) [Guide 6,7]
• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5, 7]
• opposition to migration (may have names of political groups/parties) [Guide 6]
• opposition to IMF/SAPs [Guide 3]
• environmental concerns (example of civil society group/movement) [Guide 4]
• cultural imperialism (may refer to indigenous movement/protest) [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism (and populist/nationalist movements) [Guide 6]
• deindustrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• food miles and local sourcing movements (may name organization) [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may discuss globalization as a complex process, the effects of which are felt everywhere, albeit in varying ways, giving rise to movements/groups. Another approach may be to discuss how the veracity of the statement depends on what local effects of globalization are most strongly felt/perceived in a different locale (and perspectives may vary on this, even within the same locale).

For band D, there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically discusses the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.

“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.

Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]

Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).

For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.

Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.

Possible themes include:

• economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
• cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
• isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
• the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].

Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.

A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.

Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.

“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:

• changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
• fashion (linked with global media corporations)
• music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).

The key factors that can be explained include:

• the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
• the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
• the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).

Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).

For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.

Possible themes include:

• MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
• cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
• the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
• migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
• government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
• transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
• military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].

Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.

This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.

Analyse recent growth trends in the use of ICT for one or more countries or regions you have studied.

Examine the changing global pattern of sociocultural interactions, referring to core regions and peripheral areas.

There are many possible approaches to answering this question.

The focus could be on:

• actual ICT network growth/adoption trends (in terms of numbers of subscribers/device owners/intensity of use/places where there is uptake)
• growth of a single/narrower aspect of ICT adoption (eg mobile phone use, social networking, broadband provision)
• the growing uses of ICT in civil society (more people exchanging ideas, information, finance) and/or changing rates of social adoption.

Weaker answers are likely to provide isolated fragments of information about different places, or may offer a technology timeline with little geographical content.

Good answers may provide a clear geographical focus (perhaps named countries eg M-Pesa in Kenya or ICT outsourcing in India) and give some depth of analysis of how and why ICT uptake has changed, and who the users are.

At band D, there should be either detailed description of ICT growth/adoption trends or explanation of ways in which ICT is being used by people/groups/TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global sociocultural interactions can encompass migration and diaspora, social networking, cultural shifts (in spoken language, music, fashion, cuisine, etc), the spread of global media and the diffusion of branded commodities (all [Guide 7]). The response should examine a range of such interactions and may address reasons for their growth over time (technology, TNCs) [Guide 2, Guide 5].

A sound examination of global sociocultural interactions may illustrate the ongoing role that “core” regions/countries have in bringing cultural change to other places.

• concepts such as “cultural imperialism” or “soft power” may be employed and should be credited if used [Guide 5]
• it may be argued that these interactions have intensified due to technology and TNCs [Guide 5]
• done well, and with sufficient synthesis of themes, this approach, though simple, could reach the higher bands
• perhaps a global core/hub and periphery/semi-periphery framework will be used [Guide 3].

Good answers may explicitly address the changing pattern/new locations of global cultural influence, notably emerging economies such as the BRIC nations (India’s Bollywood film, Brazil’s Bossa Nova music, etc). Some may even consider the extent to which a long-established US–EU (core) hegemony is under threat.

Credit other valid interpretations, but material on financial interactions (eg remittance flows) should be marked as irrelevant or not answering the question. Some answers may lack conceptual grounding, but usefully employ a good range of anecdotal/documentary evidence that draws on a candidate’s own lifestyle, eg familiarity with South Korea’s K-pop phenomenon and Psy (a major music trend of 2012 that will be very familiar to the age group who will have sat the paper).

At band D, expect either explanation of a wide, detailed range of sociocultural interactions, or a more critical examination of a changing pattern over time.

For band E, expect both.

Those that attempted this question generally knew something about call centres in India, or the uptake of mobile phones in Kenya. The best answers addressed the stem phrase “growth trends” and understood that supporting data would, logically, gain more marks. Weaker answers tended to assert that “high” and “low” use of ICT could be seen in different countries around the world, due to disparities in economic development.

Some excellent answers were seen, when judged against their knowledge of different processes of sociocultural interactions, such as assimilation, glocalization or hybridization. Lively and informative supporting examples were provided, and centres are encouraged to suggest to candidates that they research local examples, rather than rely purely on textbook case studies of McDonald’s. Fewer candidates engaged quite as well with the word “pattern” which often resulted in a band D, rather than band E, mark being awarded. Interrelationships were sometimes hinted at but not fully explored (such as the tendency of Hollywood to increasingly adopt Indian, South Korean or Japanese tropes, for instance).

Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.

To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?

The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as "local" places within a global context.

Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).

There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.

Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.

For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.

At band E, expect all of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).

Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).

Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:

• growth of core regions [Guide 1]
• growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
• agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
• food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
• globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
• de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).

“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.

Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:

• cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
• low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
• local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).

These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.

Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).

For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).

Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).

Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:

• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
• tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
• cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
• nationalist movements [Guide 6]
• isolationism [Guide 7].

Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.

For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.

The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.

Using examples, analyse how foreign direct investment and glocalization are used by transnational corporations (TNCs) to help their expansion.

Examine the relationship between a country’s gross national income (GNI) and its level of participation in globalization.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) includes a range of different kinds of overseas investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs). These include: hiring outsourcing services (employing a third party to handle goods or services), establishing a “spatial division of labour” (building/buying company-owned branch plants or back offices in low-cost locations), mergers, acquisitions and franchises. Credit other possible financial outgoings (eg TNCs working alongside charities). Good answers should recognize more than one type of FDI, using examples.

Glocalization describes the adapting of a “universal” product to meet the cultural requirements of local markets (religion, taste, legal requirements may all vary from territory to territory). Glocalization is also linked to local sourcing strategies (using local suppliers), which may have political dimensions too (TNCs may be required to work with local partners eg in India). 

Candidates could comment on how geographic expansion is achieved through use of these strategies. TNCs achieve greater profits/market share through their geographic strategies, and can win local acceptance by embracing local people’s culture.

Candidates may additionally analyse how different strategies suit different TNCs (oil companies may not glocalize to the extent retailers do), or may analyse the weaknesses and not just the strengths of strategies.

Band C answers may describe examples of glocalization and/or FDI but with a lack of terminology and little mention of expansion (beyond asserting that it happens).

At band D, expect either a more detailed, exemplified explanation of both strategies (but do not expect balance) or some explicit analysis of how market expansion is achieved by particular TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Candidates will have studied global participation with reference to the Kearney or KOF globalization indices, which recognize economic, social and political strands of globalization. Therefore, accept a wide interpretation of what is meant by “participation” in globalization.

Possible themes suggesting a positive relationship between GNI and participation:

• well-known indexes (eg, KOF index) show high globalization scores for countries with a high GNI, as a rule [Guide 1]
• foreign direct investment by TNCs can bring many financial benefits that lead in turn to greater global economic participation for businesses and citizens (if incomes grow, allowing people to consume more globally-produced services or participate in tourism) [Guide 3)
• levels of sociocultural participation (an aspect of KOF) may also be higher for high-income countries [Guide 5]
• the role of remittances can be explored, as flows often take place between richer and poorer countries [Guide 3]
• poorer societies remain “non-globalized” eg, Amazonian tribes [Guide 7]
• poorer nations only experience one-way interactions – their assets are stripped by powerful nations/TNCs (raw materials, landgrabs) [Guide 4].

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• there are many types of global participation/interactions. People may participate in economic globalization but not necessarily cultural globalization (eg, Chinese factory workers with limited internet freedoms) [Guide 1]
• scale/disparities may be important. Some nations with higher GNI are “two-speed” societies: elite groups participate globally, not poorer groups [Guide 1]
• the relationship could be complex in the case of a migratory “brain drain” – remittances may boost GNI, but out-migration could reduce GNI too [Guide 3]
• the role of other aid/loans can be discussed – low GNI nations may be major beneficiaries of certain types of global financial flow [Guide 3]
• there are other possible exceptions/anomalies to the rule that can help lift a response into bands D/E.

At band C, some links between GNI/wealth and globalization should be described.

Band D should either provide a wider, detailed explanation of different links between GNI and participation or offer a more critical examination of what is meant by a country’s “participation in globalization”.

At band E, expect both.

While most candidates attempting this question were pleasingly familiar with glocalization, there was less familiarity with foreign direct investment (FDI). Some candidates explained why TNCs invest in foreign crime in order to reduce their costs (implying, perhaps, that such benefits might help a company’s future expansion). Only a few were able to demonstrate much understanding of how FDI flows operate beyond "building a factory". The best answers looked at outsourcing, while a tiny minority were aware of the geographical importance of mergers and joint ventures. Although McDonald’s is still the preferred case study of choice for candidates and teachers, most candidates remain in complete ignorance of how the company’s presence in India is in the form of a joint venture. This goes a long way to explaining why it has been so successful at glocalizing its products in India, due to the expert local knowledge of its Indian partner companies.

The command to “examine the relationship” (as opposed to “explain the relationship”) required candidates, ideally, to outline what underlying assumptions they would be making, preferably in their introduction. Weaker candidates generally established a simple positive correlation at the outset. Better answers suggested anomalies/outliers might need to be looked at too. At the very top end of the cohort, a small minority of candidates thought there could even be a reversal of the assumed relationship, whereby a wealthy country could maintain a degree of cultural isolation, whilst poorer countries sometimes become the global focus for international assistance and intervention, as in the case of Haiti. Sadly, most candidates did no more than assert that a strong positive relationship exists. To the credit of many, they performed a synthesis by suggesting that countries with a high GNI are likely to be home to many powerful TNCs, to be capable of cultural imperialism and to be highly attractive to economic migrants. Good answers sometimes made effective use of the KOF or Kearney index and demonstrated how some wealthy countries like the USA and UK score highly in all categories. However, it was a pity that more use was not made of interesting examples, such as China, which shows high participation in some ways but not in others.

Explain the causes and effects of one major international labour flow.

“The growth of globalization owes more to politics than it does to technology.” Discuss this statement.

The causes should encompass both push and pull factors and possibly also the enabling role of technology and transport networks (both providing means to move as well as spreading knowledge of opportunities), without which the migratory impulse may not be acted upon. Popular examples could include movement from Mexico to the US or movements internal to the EU, South Asians working in the Middle East, or Filipinos into Asia. Assess any example on its own merits but poorly chosen small-scale migration flows should be restricted to band C.

The effects depend upon the case study chosen. These might include economic/social impacts for host/source or the political reaction of natives/the media in the host country. More broadly, processes of cultural exchange and the growth of diaspora may be explored, possibly within the wider global context of migration contributing to growth of a “global village”/shrinking world. But do not expect all of these themes by any means to be necessary for full marks to be awarded: just two causes and two different types of effect could be sufficient to access the highest bands if the case study details are good.

To access Band E, both causes and effects should be addressed in a reasonably balanced way.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Politics:

Important themes could include the influence of governments on capital transfers by financial institutions [Guide 3] and TNCs (liberal attitudes could be contrasted with countries where greater restrictions exist, for example, the controversial role of Chavez in Venezuela; or the isolationism of North Korea). Another theme could be IMF insistence on political reforms [Guide 3]. Weak environment and labour laws/enforcement of these laws may be attractive: this is likely to be a popular theme, possible examples being China (though now changing) or Malaysia. The movement towards nation-state integration in the EU – and to a lesser extent in other trading blocs [Guide 6] – allows rapid growth on a regionalized level due to suspension of tariffs and quotas on imports/exports between trading partners. Political reactions to globalization [Guide 7] vary enormously and cultural traditions of liberalism or socialism could become enshrined in immigration laws or other policies.

Technology:

The growth of transport and ICT networks have fuelled the growth of a range of flows – including FDI, migration [Guide 5], outsourcing by TNCs, growth of call centres, social/cultural “shrinking world”, economic exchanges brought by the internet or BlackBerry etc. [Guide 2]. Containerized shipping and no-frills flights can be linked to exponential growth of various flows such as manufactured goods and international tourism [Guide 5]. The “Arab Spring” can be viewed as a youth-led phenomenon that was, in part, facilitated by technology and media.

The very best answers may attempt to link the two factors and add complexity to their comparison. For instance, it could be possible to show how technology has actually been driven by politics (for example, the Cold War roots of the internet), or to address how technology allows global political participation (for example, use of Facebook to orchestrate protests at G20 summits etc.).

To access band E, the response should be well balanced and a conclusion should be reached that is more complex than “they are both important” (perhaps through an evidenced account that supports one factor rather than the other, or perhaps by stressing that the two factors are actually interrelated).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Most candidates could describe some effects of a major labour flow, or migration, usually with a basic framework applied (such as compared impacts for the source and host region). Remittances were widely written about, which was appropriate given their centrality to financial global interactions in a paper 3 context. A hallmark of better answers tended to be the adoption of an evaluative approach as part of the explanation: rather than simply listing the "good and bad impacts", strong candidates volunteered to weigh up the positives and negatives of individual effects, such as the transfer of remittances (wherein GDP growth is seen as the positive and dependency as the negative). The causes of the labour flow were sometimes very thin in weaker responses; in contrast, the best answers sometimes offered a political framework as a causal factor for movement (freedom of movement in the EU or governance of Mexico-USA movement, for example).

Weaker answers were usually highly descriptive, with candidates doing no more than asserting by way of a conclusion that Facebook (shrinking world, technology) is a "bigger influence" than EU membership (politics). The strongest responses presented a proper evaluation and perhaps concluded by recognizing that there are political limits to our so-called shrinking world, or that political processes shape the local geographical context within which technology is rolled out.

Explain how and why one network (transport, internet, or communication) has grown over time.

Examine the relative importance of the different financial flows that connect global core areas with peripheral areas.

The description of “how” may include some account of changes in user numbers and the global pattern of distribution, including key nodes and hubs where large amounts of traffic (people, goods or information) are routed.

Some candidates may select one example of transport (for example, container shipping) while others may address transport in general. Either approach is acceptable and should be credited according to its merits.

While it is desirable that good answers can describe the spatial growth of the chosen network over time, it is also acceptable for the answer to instead describe growth in the intensity of use of the network over time (this applies particularly to an analysis of the worldwide web or of “global travel”).

The account of “why” should focus on a rising number of users/affluent markets, thereby causing networks to grow (in size or intensity of use) to help meet the needs of more individuals (leisure/tourism/work) and businesses, including TNCs and/or governments.

The overcoming of physical, economic, or political obstacles could form an important part of the account (either “how” or “why”). For example, an analysis of internet growth might mention physical challenges being overcome (through the laying of undersea cables). Or an account of airline growth might mention advancements in technology (Airbus) or the growth of cheap airlines. Equally, key milestones in the roll-out of the technology (for example, invention of TCP/IP protocol for the internet) can be applied to support either strand of the answer.

To access band D, both “how” and “why” need to be adressed in relation to the same network example. To access band E, the response should be well balanced, although a good explanation of “how” could balance a weaker account of “why” or vice versa.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to outline some key financial flows: loans (and the repayment of interest/debt), Foreign Direct Investment, profit flows, share trades, remittances and international aid (government and NGOs) [Guide 3]. Food, raw materials, manufactured goods and services (all sold for profit) may also be addressed. The response should also provide some explanation of what is meant by a “global core area” and perhaps some discussion of the varied nature of the periphery (LDCs and NICs, for instance) [Guide 1]. There will be varying interpretations of what constitutes a core or peripheral area (for example, the issue of where BRICs are placed). The best answers may even critically address the issue of scale (for example, rural India is peripheral to the world economy but Mumbai could be described as a core/hub area) [Guide 1].

The relative importance of the flows needs to be addressed. Globally, FDI dwarfs aid flows, for instance. The power of TNCs is arguably greater than that of many sovereign states [Guide 6] and aid agencies, suggesting that trade flows may be more influential than aid flows in terms of the impact they have on different places and people’s lives.

The idea of what constitutes “important” may also be reflected on, or explicit recognition provided that many flows operate in both directions and so net effects are hard to quantify.

Any conclusion reached will be context-dependent. While the “Asian miracle” is often taught as a vindication of the transformative power of FDI, other localities have rejected FDI and aid flows (there are South American and African examples) and there is a spectrum of local reactions to international flows [Guide 7]. Accept a broad interpretation of what is meant by “currency”, for example, gold, diamonds.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

The question was generally quite well answered, although there was a tendency for weaker candidates to ignore the spatial aspects implied by the term "network" in the question (and subject guide). A small number of candidates explained the growth of more than one network by, for example, writing about transport and communications networks. (This approach tended to bring breadth of description, rather than depth of explanation, resulting in a lower likelihood of reaching band E.) A few very strong responses charted the growth (that is, actual spatial expansion) of airline hubs, or the roll-out of broadband (and could reference the internet "switching-on" of specific places, such as Kenya or Bangalore, rather than "Africa" or "Asia" in general).

The poorest answers described a timeline of travel ("growth" came to mean "speeding up" – not quite the same thing), starting with the invention of the wheel or walking. Within the context of a contemporary global interactions paper, this kind of "general knowledge" response would not have achieved many marks.

A proper examination of the "relative importance" of financial flows was not always delivered by candidates; most conclusions failed to reach the desired level of evaluation. Better responses did, however, make accurate reference to a variety of financial flows and displayed a good grasp of how they connect core and peripheral areas bidirectionally. The weakest responses failed to relate core and peripheral areas to specific locations and exhibited little knowledge of what flows are financial, or how financial flows operate. Moreover, some had no grasp of what the "core and periphery" pattern looks like in a 21st century global context. A simple "Brandt Line approach" is not an appropriate framework for contemporary global analysis, given today's complex map of emerging economies and the spread of world cities/global hubs. No credit was given to those who took "core" to mean CBD.

Using examples, analyse the reasons why some places have become international outsourcing hubs.

Examine the challenges that increased global adoption of information and communications technology (ICT) brings to different places.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• The outsourcing definition is included in the subject guide. Hubs are well-networked places within global networks.
• Global information flows have helped some places, such as Bangalore and Manila, to become hubs for international outsourcing centres (call centres). ICT and information flows are also an important reason for the growth of outsourcing of manufacturing and agriculture (allowing complex networks of supply and
  demand to function).
• In addition to ICT, other factors play a role and may provide reasons for the growth of outsourcing in certain places, such as government incentives and human resources (including literacy and languages spoken).

Good, structured (AO4) answers may provide detailed exemplification of outsourcing hubs (cities and districts rather than merely countries). They may analyse the reasons why particular locations have a comparative advantage over others in terms of ICT provision or other production costs compared with other places. Or they may be more selective in the way they analyse outsourcing by breaking this into constituent parts, such as manufacturing and services or agriculture sectors.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect weak outlining of the reasons why international outsourcing happens in a recognizable country or city.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:

• either the reasons for international outsourcing to specific places
• or different categories/sectors of international outsourcing.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

ICT refers to internet, broadband, mobiles and smartphones used by citizens, businesses and governments. From this arise multiple contexts for possible local challenges to be examined. Countries/national governments are creditable as places in addition to more local areas and neighbourhoods. The growing global pattern of adoption shows rapid uptake in Asia, Latin America and Africa (though at a slower rate than in Asia).

There are economic, social, cultural and political challenges and these vary according to the context.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• the challenges of the shrinking world effect including unchecked flows of culture [Guide 2]
• global diffusion of culture is lined with cultural imperialism/loss of identity [Guide 5]
• loss of sovereignty for states/governments unable to control citizens’ internet access [Guide 6]
• the way ICT enables increased outsourcing and offshoring, which may have negative impacts [Guide 3]
• use of ICT by anti-globalization and terror groups (perspectives will vary on this) [Guide 7]
• the challenge of the digital divide and lack of participation in ICT (factors include income, age, literacy level), which in turn link to disparities in wealth at varying scales [Guide 3]
• e-waste is a product of growing ICT use [Guide 4].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might offer a carefully structured examination of different challenges in specific geographic contexts
• might offer a structured examination of the way different categories of ICT are affecting places and user groups
• might examine challenges from multiple perspectives, such as that of the state or its individual citizens (and in relation to people’s age, culture and identity).

Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of benefits derived from ICT, such as Kenya’s M-Pesa scheme: this is not asked for. However, some AO3 credit may be gained for any ongoing evaluation of the way certain challenges can – in part – be alleviated/offset/ameliorated by the benefits ICT nonetheless brings.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant technology/shrinking world themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of one named globalization index.

“Individuals, national governments and international organizations are increasingly resistant to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Expect either the KOF or Kearney index to be selected. There are other possibilities, for example, Maastricht globalization index; CSGR (Warwick); Ernst & Young.

Strengths include the multi-strand approach taken, recognizing that globalization comprises a range of processes that need to be measured, for example, KOF distinguishes between political, social and economic measures of globalization while Kearney uses four categories (economic, personal, technological or political integration).

Weaknesses can be conceptual (what is not included) or empirical (difficulties in collecting data and accuracy issues), for example, KOF’s measures of social globalization are easily critiqued, such as the “proximity” of data.

For band C, one recognizable index of globalization should be described in a way that implies it has merit (has different strands) and may state one or two basic weaknesses.

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the chosen multi-strand index (with some attempt made to describe some weakness)
• or greater understanding of the weaknesses of economic and social data collection/comparisons in general (eg appreciates different perspectives on what is viewed as important; knows about flaws in survey methodology).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions should be defined as a broad set of economic and sociocultural exchanges.

At the individual scale, a range of civil society initiatives can be discussed, such as Occupy/anti-globalization and, at the other end of the political spectrum, anti-immigration/nationalists [Guide 7]. However, some individuals continue to embrace the shrinking world [Guide 2] for a range of economic/cultural reasons [Guide 5].

Evidence of resistance at the national level might include individual government attitudes towards the arrival of global media corporations [Guide 5] or towards immigration and diaspora growth [Guide 5] or towards MGO membership [Guide 6]. However, governments also recognize the advantages of globalization, free trade and financial flows [Guide 5].

The concept of “international organizations” embraces MGOs [Guide 6] and international aid and development agencies responsible for financial flows, such as the politically-guided work of the IMF [Guide 2]. It is likely that candidates will choose to argue against the statement at this final scale.

Because the question specifies three scales of resistance, there are several routes to discussing the statement. One might be to offer some counterarguments (eg shows that some national governments embrace global interactions). Another might be to discuss the extent to which resistance is exhibited by individuals compared with governments and international organizations. Another might be to consider whether different kinds of interaction meet with varying strength or resistance (eg China embracing trade but resists information exchange). Each approach must be assessed on its own merits. However, a response that merely agrees with the statement cannot progress beyond the band C/D border.

For band C, resistance to global interactions must be identified at all three scales, with description provided of at least two.

To access band D, expect:

• either broader knowledge of a range of reactions, at some different scales (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, eg by comparing negative reactions at different scales; or by comparing positive and negative reactions at some of the specified scales ie individuals, governments and organizations)
• or some explicit discussion of the way that different types of global interaction may prompt different kinds of reaction at one/some of the specified scales.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using one or more examples, analyse the geographic challenges associated with transboundary pollution.

Examine how disparities between countries give rise to different global flows.

Transboundary pollution has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse an “event”, such as a major oil spill, or a pervasive air pollution event or period of acid rain (which could last for many months or even years – an example being NW Europe in the 1970s and 1980s). Whatever examples are used, it should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”.

• “Geographic challenges” includes the consequences of the pollution, such as immediate human, ecological and environmental impacts.
• There are also longer clear-up operations and challenges to consider.
• Also, there is the challenge of achieving effective regulation / prevention with pollution management strategies, including global governance of the issue(s).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to analyse different categories of geographic challenge eg economic, political and environmental or short and long term. Another approach might be to compare issues for countries closer to the pollution source with issues for countries further away. Another approach might be to analyse the challenges of preventing future pollution given the physical processes involved eg atmospheric circulation. Another approach might be to analyse how the geographic challenges differ according to the scale of the problem and the number of states and stakeholders that are affected.

Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well-analysed (idea of TNCs moving their pollution / unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (though not transboundary, some limited credit for the transnational aspects of the case study could be given). Accounts of carbon emissions and climate change should also be treated like this.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the effects of transboundary/transnational pollution in one or more contexts.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of: 

• either one or more detailed examples of the consequences of actual transboundary pollution
• or different types of geographic challenge (eg near & far challenges, short and long-term challenges or economic and governance challenges).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on disparities between countries or different global groups of countries: these may include economic, social, political or other disparities. The question suggests that disparities give rise to multiple flows. These range from financial flows to migration and the movement of ideas and information.

Better answers will maintain a focus on flows eg FDI, remittances; weaker answer may at times become more descriptive of the actions or impacts of different stakeholders/actors eg TNCs (and flows may be implied rather than explicitly examined).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• labour/migration flows [Guide 3]
• financial flows, eg remittances/aid/loans [Guide 3]
• investments by global institutions such as the IMF [Guide 3]
• raw material flows [Guide 4]
• waste disposal flows [Guide 4]
• information flows routed via low-cost outsourcing centres [Guide 3]
• TNC investment into new emerging markets and profit repatriation [Guide 5]
• past/present cultural exchanges linked with core–periphery labour flows [Guide 6].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three or more of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the complexity of global disparities (there are multiple development gaps and disparities eg between emerging economies and the least developed states). Another approach might be to examine non-economic disparities eg differences in governance and human rights. Another approach might be to examine the scale of different flows/movements (eg USA and Mexico are neighbour countries; India and UK are distant from one another).

Answers dealing only with movements from “poor” to “rich” places will most likely show only limited understanding of what could be meant by “disparities between countries” and are unlikely to reach the highest band even if factually detailed.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Explain how global interaction may be measured.

Examine the effects of the development of communications upon international interactions.

Likely responses may refer to a named globalization index such as the AT Kearney or the KOF index. Any index chosen should be explained in some detail. For example, if the Kearney index is chosen its four key components should be named:

• economic integration
• personal contact
• technological connectivity
• political engagement.

The response should give some indication of how each of these is measured and is likely to provide an example. For instance, within the Kearney index, personal contact includes remittances/travel/telephone.

Responses should suggest the units for one or more parts of the index, for example, telephone – minutes of international traffic per capita.

Most indices of interactions are compound indices based on several components. Weighting factors are applied, a total score is calculated and countries may then be ranked.

To access band D and above, responses should include:

• a recognized index with its components
• an explanation for the ranking of countries
• named examples.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

The response should recognize a variety of kinds of communications (transport, telecommunications and the internet) and interactions (socio-cultural, economic and political). For example, the increasing capacity and speed of transport systems has facilitated the international transfer of goods through trade. It has also stimulated cultural integration through labour transfers and tourism. ICT has increased all aspects of international interaction, in particular financial transfers and business transactions. ICT has also allowed easier international exchange of ideas and political negotiation.

Answers attaining band D and above must focus upon international interaction, not just outcomes. Answers attaining band E must also include references to transport as well as ICT. Named examples are also expected at these levels.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Using examples, analyse how economic and political factors affect global migration flows.

“The interdependence of countries has been greatly exaggerated.” Using examples, discuss this statement.

Economic push or pull factors may be discussed. Political factors might be conceptualized either as push and/or pull factors (such as persecution or conflict and liberal/tolerant governments) or alternatively as barriers to movement (eg, the EU allows migration between members while attempting to limit migration from northern Africa).

A good analysis may analyse global patterns instead of simply explaining a series of international case studies. Another approach may be to provide a structured analysis of flows being increased or decreased. Good answers might even analyse the timescale of movements, or the possibility of reversal (such as during the global financial crisis 2008–09, or in response to conflict).

Extremely well-detailed analyses of selected international movements (eg USA–Mexico) are unlikely to access band E (9-10 marks) without some broader global analysis.

For band C (4-6 marks), one weakly-evidenced economic and one weakly-evidenced political factor should be outlined, and a basic link established with migration flow(s) between some countries.

For band D (7-8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of

• either both types of factor, with more detailed national exemplification
• or how these factors affect the characteristics of migration flows at a global scale.

For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.

[10 marks]

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be on interdependence (the core idea underpinning the concept of globalization, ie that countries are mutually dependent on one another). The dependency could be economic or political in nature. Creditable social/cultural/environmental interpretations may also be discussed (perhaps linked with a concept of “global sustainability”). The phrasing of the question also requires that there should be some evaluation of whether exemplified countries have retained a degree of independence/autonomy in some, or all, ways. Possible themes from the geography guide include:

• economic interdependency due to outsourcing and FDI relationships [Guide 3]
• financial flows, remittances and migration (for instance, western Europe depends on the labour of eastern Europe which, in turn, relies on remittances as a proportion of GDP [Guide 3]
• multi-governmental organizations and the economic and political interdependency they foster [Guide 6]
• how diaspora populations can help foster bilateral relationships between country of origin and countries of destination [Guide 5].

Themes in agreement of ‘over-exaggeration’ include:

• the possibility of isolationism, protectionism and resource nationalism [Guide 6]
• retreat from interdependent relations as a result of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6]
• local sourcing movements [Guide 7]
• shrinking world barriers eg ‘Great Firewall of China’ [Guide 2].

Good answers may question the context, because some countries with highly developed economies may have developed more complex financial networks and outsourcing arrangements; or may belong to more MGOs. Equally some countries are interdependent in some respects (financially) but perhaps not others (China’s relative cultural isolation). Good answers may also distinguish between dependency and connectivity, or may question whether the state of interdependency is unequal/asymmetric (one partner may be far more dependent on others than vice versa).

For band C (5-8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9-12 marks), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.

[15 marks]

Explain the role of ICT in the growth of international outsourcing.

“Environmental degradation is the inevitable outcome of global economic interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them (eg one company employing another company to produce goods or services rather than manufacture them “in-house” at a branch plant or back-office owned by the first company). International outsourcing consists of the means by which a domestic firm asks a foreign firm to produce a specified product, component or service, for which it can perhaps supply the inputs and transfer technology and technical assistance to the producer. Different sectors of industry (from agribusiness to call centres) use ICT in different ways to support outsourcing.

Links with ICT might include: outsourced office and quaternary/research work that is enabled via ICT and the movement of bundled files, data, use of Skype, etc. Many back-office services eg call centres, accountancy, have been moved to India from UK/USA for instance; and France to North Africa (the role of other factors eg availability of European language speakers, may be commented on). Some answers may comment on how the trend has changed over time in line with technological advancements. Also credit more general ideas about using ICT to research outsourcing destinations, or to transfer payments to client companies.

ICT also helps with inventories, just-in-time ordering from suppliers, etc, thereby supporting outsourcing of other sectors of industry including manufacturing and food. For bands D and E, expect a broad analysis of the role of ICT that has some good supporting details of outsourcing (and is likely to offer a definition).

Performance at band C is likely to be narrower (very limited range of outsourcing examples) and/or may lack much/any evidence of where/when outsourcing has taken place (or may get side-tracked by describing in depth the evolution of ICT, or ICT led global interactions, with little explicit focus on outsourcing ).

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The terms “environmental degradation” and “global economic interactions” are both broad; either, or both, may be deconstructed to provide some essay structure.

Commodity movements (raw materials, agro-industrial produce, e-waste) are important forms of economic interaction [Guide 4]. Global economic interactions also comprise financial flows ie loans, aid, debt repayment, FDI [Guide 3]. Migration, tourism and online financial transactions may also be included [Guide 3].

A broad interpretation of “degradation” should be credited [Guide 4]. Environmental degradation can take many forms, with the geography guide suggesting candidates become familiar with impacts of tourism [Guide 5], agro-industrialization, air freighting (food miles), waste movements and transboundary pollution events [Guide 4]. Other suggestions may be made drawing on other parts of the geography course, and these should be credited. Weaker answers may neglect to link these impacts with specific global interactions (may assert that “businesses” cause deforestation but say little about why they are doing so/where demand is coming from/who the actual TNCs are). Do not over-credit pollution events that do not relate to global interactions (eg Chernobyl) or are weakly related.

Good answers may cast the net wider eg addressing the carbon footprint of financial flows such as online trading (relying on the use of ICT requiring electricity); or may look at how the burden of debt may result in an increase in environmentally damaging practices such as logging; or may look at the environmental impacts of FDI-led development eg Bhopal (India) or Shell (Niger delta) or BP (Gulf of Mexico).

Counter-arguments may include the limited impacts of online interactions; or the measures taken by TNCs or other actors to minimize environmental impacts including climate change “carbon-neutral” initiative and other mitigation measures (actions of NGOs eg WWF). Credit any attempt made to stress the lower-impact nature of certain activities (good answers may even question the level of damage that constitutes actual “degradation”, or may contrast local and global scale degradation).

At band C, there could be a conclusion that disagrees with the statement, but purely on the basis of the discussion of a very narrow range of interactions (eg has simply contrasted internet use with oil spills) or impacts (but global interactions not clear).

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced interactions and impacts, or a properly evidenced conclusion that provides a considered viewpoint, or gives an overview, about the impacts of different global interactions on the environment. At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Many candidates floundered over the term “outsourcing” even though it is clearly defined in the subject guide. Thankfully, the role of ICT was more successfully tackled. Thus, even if outsourcing was not fully understood, marks were picked up for analysing the key role of technology and the process of time–space compression. Those that attempted the question generally knew something about call centres in India, though it was often simply asserted technology had “made it happen” before writing at length about other factors (for example, the English language being spoken in India), which was not answering the question directly. The best answers addressed the stem phrase “the role of” and understood that an analysis of multiple roles would, logically, gain more marks. Thus, as well as Bangalore’s success, they also explored how computer-aided just-in-time procurement allows TNC retailers, such as Tesco or Carrefour, to effectively liaise with Kenyan agribusinesses in their supply chain. Generally, it was good to see limited conceptual slippage between supply chain outsourcing and a TNC’s own internal spatial division of labour (while the factors that drive the growth of both are similar, they are far from being the same thing).

A lot of weak answers were seen here, as has already been commented on. These were of the “human impact” variety. Many candidates wrote about how economic activity frequently has adverse effects on the environment, but did no more than imply that there is some link with globalization. Many of the impacts written about could have happened in isolation from global interactions, such as acid rain on a country’s own doorstep on account of its own power stations. The worst example of this is the common assertion that the USSR adopted nuclear power “because of globalization” and this led to the Chernobyl disaster. Similar problems arise with the use of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Candidates do not link deep-sea oil exploration with globalization in a meaningful way, other than to tell us that BP is a TNC. One suggestion might be for candidates to at least note that global economic growth and the spread of wealth (notably so amongst the middle classes of the BRIC nations) has hastened the approach of peak oil; thus energy TNCs are forced towards riskier deep ocean operations, or must make greater use of non-conventional fossil fuels (fracking). Similar issues arise with the way deforestation, climate change, soil erosion and eutrophication are commonly handled whenever an “environment” question is set on paper 3. Very general answers are commonplace that do not locate these impacts nor link them with the actions of recognizable global actors, such as TNCs. Very few candidates can name an actual agribusiness, such as Cargill.

Explain how rising global demand for one raw material has led to environmental degradation.

“The barriers to global interactions are increasing, not decreasing.” Discuss this statement.

Raw materials may include fossil fuels, ores, timber or food stuffs such as soya. Any unexpected interpretations, the validity of which is not clear, must be referred to a team leader.

• Located impacts for degradation could include the Niger delta or Gulf of Mexico (oil), Brazil (timber/soya), shale gas (USA), oil sands (Canada).
• Specific impacts might include loss of biodiversity or acid rain. A good account of impacts that lacks locational detail can still reach the higher band if the process details are good.
• The idea of degradation might also be linked to the lifecycle of the raw material/product including waste disposal issues.
• Good answers may be structured to show different scales of environmental degradation (local and global) or may look at transmission of effects (questioning whether degradation occurs at the source or destination/market eg coal burning).

Details of rising demand are required for band E, or can help candidates to access band D if they are lacking details about environmental degradation. Rising demand could be linked specifically with the growth of emerging economies/rising affluence/growth of new consumer classes. Some credit can be given for suggesting population increases, although rising demand is in fact related far more to changing lifestyles in China, Brazil, Indonesia, etc.

At band D, expect either a detailed description of some range of environmental degradation, or a clear explanation of how/why rising demand plays a role.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions may be defined as a diverse set of flows (economic, social, cultural, etc), potentially “setting the scene” for an essay which provides a nuanced conclusion that discusses the extent to which the statement is true for different types of global interaction.

Likely themes and barriers include:

• free trade versus protectionism (and the role trade blocs play); the focus will be loss of sovereignty and multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6]
• information exchange versus censorship, linked to growing importance of technology/“shrinking world” theory [Guide 2]
• “open-door” migration versus points systems and restrictions either in the context of economic migration or diaspora studies [Guide 3, Guide 5]
• some possible considerations of the now well-documented and growing risks associated with outsourcing/offshoring [Guide 3] – perhaps an “end of globalization” argument
• physical/environmental barriers may not be growing but are certainly falling due to overcoming of friction of distance [Guide 2]
• developed further, the migration and offshoring debates can be linked with the resurgence of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6, Guide 7].

The double-edged effect of MGOs may be remarked on – namely, that they reduce barriers to internal exchanges while erecting barriers to external trade (eg through the adoption of a common external tariff in the case of the EU, thereby excluding some producers from access to European markets).

Good answers may conclude that the response to the question depends on the type of interaction that is being discussed (thus China is more open to flows of FDI than in the past, pre-1978; yet efforts to censor the internet have increased in line with its growing popularity). Some countries encourage economic interactions but attempt to curtail cultural ones.

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a variety of ways in which barriers are changing, or a more critical discussion of different kinds of barriers and interactions.

At band E, expect both.

Many mediocre responses were seen. Some very generalized impacts were described, with many candidates offering little beyond “pollution” or “global warming”. Also, the phrase “rising global demand” was glossed over in most cases, with candidates simply asserting that more oil or timber (the most popular choices) is needed today than in the past. Few could link the rising demand with important global development such as the rise of consumption in emerging economies. Higher level diploma geography candidates really ought to be in possession of supporting data in relation to the changing global pattern of wealth. One good starting point for updating content, already mentioned in a previous subject report for this paper, is this recent McKinsey report:

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class 

A pleasing number of candidates who chose this question were able to offer a proper evaluation that gave nuanced consideration to what is meant by a “barrier” (poverty, languages, and political obstacles were all possibilities). Many grasped the paradox that trade blocs simultaneously increase and decrease barriers (according to who is a member of the bloc, and who is not).

Explain why the landscapes of major world cities are becoming increasingly similar.

“Global interactions are putting all the world’s wealth into the hands of a small number of people and countries.” Discuss this statement.

The focus should be an explanation of the landscapes of major world cities eg Sao Paulo, New York, Cape Town, Singapore, Mumbai, Barcelona, Dublin etc. These settlements may house “cloned” retailing districts and ubiquitous branded commodities (expect references to McDonald’s and Starbucks); also, a suggestion of “universal” modernist architecture in financial and housing districts (expect a range of examples in stronger responses); also, a broader response may encompass the proliferation of cultural and religious signs and symbols as a result of migration and diaspora (eg mosques, synagogues, churches all present in major world cities/global hubs). Metro-style transport networks are a common shared feature.

Explanation may include: the global influence of property developers (retail/financial/housing) key architects and their firms; inter-urban competition (eg status competition for the highest, or most modern-looking buildings); the power of TNCs to project global advertising messages in urban environments (and perhaps regulatory changes or trade bloc enlargements assisting their global expansion); rising affluence in emerging economies (thus enticing McDonald’s, etc); the “shrinking world” effect (the global diffusion of architectural styles, etc); migration leading to landscape changes; historical connections (colonial architecture).

The question does not require counter-argument although some may note that “similar” is not equivalent to “same” due to the survival of local architecture. The focus invites an overview of the world’s major cities/urban landscapes and the best answers may cite examples drawn from both developed world cities and those of some emerging economies eg “Asian Tigers”, Middle East, BRIC nations.

Band C answers are likely to be descriptive (lacking explanation) of urban homogenization, or explain cultural/global homogenization but without a landscape/city focus.

For band D, at least two reasons for urban/landscape homogenization should be well explained, or a wider range of reasons for cultural homogenization are explained in less detail and some links are made with urban landscapes. Band E should provide breadth and depth of explanation, with some variety of landscape exemplification.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The broadest macro-scale distributional contrasts should be clearly highlighted – including the high growth rates of emerging economies, especially those of China and India (can be used to support or argue against the question) and the continued lack of FDI for the poorest 50 LDCs. A historical view might contrast the historical Brandt Line north-south wealth distribution with today’s more complex pattern of cores [Guide 1]. Good answers may even appreciate the recent relative underperformance and loss of share of wealth of established core regions (Japan, USA, Eurozone). Answers should be focused on wealth, rather than “importance” and may have supporting data, eg GDP figures or income data or use of Gini index data. These changes may be linked with a range of explanatory reasons relating to economic interactions including FDI, remittances, aid etc. [Guide 3], changes in global participation [Guide 1] or geopolitical change and interaction [Guide 6].

The benefits of globalization are not evenly spread within nations and this is a reason for resistance from some groups [Guide 5/7]. One approach might be to examine the claim that “the rich get richer while the poor get poorer” and describe evidence for worker poverty within some nations, linked to FDI/TNCs [Guide 3], outsourcing or agro-industry employment [Guide 4]. Societies that have been excluded from global interactions (indigenous tribes, etc) may also be discussed [Guide 7].

Good answers may address the question at different scales, or may suggest a complex global pattern of “haves” and “have-nots” (perhaps by identifying wealth in the Middle East or East Asia, or highlighting the persisting poverty of the poorest LDCs eg Mali). The best answers may distinguish between relative and absolute levels of wealth. As the rich have got richer, the poor may hold a lessened share of wealth – this is not the same thing as losing wealth.

Band C responses may assert the statement is correct/incorrect, based on a narrow range of supporting ideas, lacking much specific evidence/information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion that provides a considered/balanced viewpoint/overview, clearly related to the changing distribution of global wealth. At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

There were some very descriptive answers seen, as commented on above. A commonly-made assertion was that TNCs “arrive” and transform the landscape. But why are TNCs arriving in Jakarta, Phnom Penh, Mumbai, Mombasa, Sao Paulo, and so on? Too many geography candidates are unable to meaningfully articulate why the world around us is changing. In strong answers, there was some recognition of the wealth growth amongst the new middle classes in global hubs such as Sao Paulo, attracting the interest of global capital. Good responses sometimes looked at the role of “re-branding” (modernizing the city, using cutting-edge architectural design) in order to attract further FDI (multiplier ideas). Some middle-ability candidates, however, lost focus on “major” world cities and wrote instead about small settlements (for example, “clone towns” in the UK, for which some credit could be gained provided the explanation was good and pertinent to the actual question set). Significant numbers wrote an inappropriate answer concerned with the Burgess concentric ring model, and asserted that this was a “universal” landscape (hence, they argued erroneously that all landscapes, from Tokyo to Illinois, must become the same in time, in strict line with Burgess’s wishes).

The general level of understanding in middle-ability responses to this question is also a cause for concern. Very few candidates seemed to show appropriate understanding of 21st century global economic geography. Not one single candidate, for instance, was seemingly aware that the McDonald’s franchises in India are 50% native-owned. Instead, the entire cohort asserted that “all the profits go to the USA”. Several more widely-used case studies suffered similarly from out-of-date, or just plain incorrect, content. Candidates had little or no knowledge of TNCs based in the BRIC or “Tiger” economies, such as Tata, Shanghai Electric or Samsung. Very few possessed up-to-date information about the world’s emerging middle class, such as the 40 million-strong C class in Brazil, who have enjoyed significant gains in consumption since the 1990s (though not in citizenship, which has been the focus of the recent riots in Brazil). It is, of course, entirely appropriate for candidates to be concerned with continuing poverty in parts of Africa, and the role that TNCs may play in perpetuating this. It is also true that a minority of billionaires monopolize a huge chunk of the world’s wealth, however, higher level diploma geography candidates should surely recognize that there is more to the changing global pattern of wealth than this. One good starting point for updating content is this recent McKinsey report: http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class

Explain why it might be hard to observe and measure some types of global interaction.

“Global interactions have brought only negative impacts to human landscapes and physical environments everywhere.” Discuss this statement.

The focus should be the challenge of collecting the data, rather than querying whether it should be included/used as a legitimate measure of global interactions/globalization. Many candidates, even at the band C/D border, may provide a general critique of the KOF/Kearney index, much of which is of marginal relevance to this particular question. These will need reading carefully for
references to the difficulties in collecting/measuring/observing global interactions. 

Expect candidates to show some familiarity with the Kearney and/or the KOF multi strand indexes of globalization. These compartmentalize globalization in terms of personal, economic, political aspects, etc. Some may correctly answer this question by focusing on those strands of Kearney/KOF that are hard/subjective to observe, or monitor – for instance, KOF’s “cultural proximity” measure.

The focus should be on explaining why it is hard observe some movements (such as the diffusion of cultural traits) and/or measuring/quantifying them. Possible themes:

• informal remittances from legal and illegal migrants are hidden
• unknown content of private information/data exchange
• criminal/illegal flows (trafficking of people and drugs) are not recorded
• TNCs may hide the movement of profits through tax havens (transfer pricing)
• complexities of tracking economic data/trade figures hence possible inaccuracy
• people may be watching “local” or “global” TV and other media, it is hard to tell.

Band C answers should describe difficulties associated with the collection of data for at least two types of global interaction (eg data flows, migration).

At band D, expect either a wider, more detailed range of data collection difficulties or some explicit analysis of the distinction between observation and measurement.

For band E, expect both.

Some candidates may discuss “the positive and negative impacts of human activity for physical and human geography” (ie a far broader focus than the given title). Whilst benefit of doubt should be given where deserved, note that some impacts, are
not necessarily a product of global interactions (Chernobyl), nor are all impacts of farming. Good candidates will stress the global dimensions of the case studies they use. Human impacts should relate to the landscape (so impacts such as “poverty alleviation” ideally need some link with a landscape change, such as housing improvement). Changes in ethnicity/language are perfectly valid as they form part of the cultural landscape. Accounts of global warming should be judged on their merits.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• there has been some homogenization of urban landscapes (uniform appearances, common activities, styles of construction, skyscrapers) [Guide 4]
• there are many physical themes that could be addressed, including degradation of the rainforest due to global demand eg, for soya, soil degradation (should be linked with global agribusiness), climate change (should be linked with international consumption of resources), transboundary pollution [Guide 4].

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• global/local efforts for the protection of cultural landscapes eg, UNESCO sites or the resurgence of nationalism in relation to the protection of the built environment [Guide 6, Guide 7]
• global civil society organizations/NGOs have fostered environmental awareness [Guide 4].

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• not all countries participate in global interactions to the same extent so effects are highly variable in any case [Guide 1]
• different perspectives exist on what constitutes “negative” in relation to cultural landscapes (though there will be broader agreement on what constitutes a negative or positive impact on the physical environment).

For band C, some impacts to human landscapes and physical environments should be described (do not expect balance) and linked with global interactions.

Band D should either provide a wider, evidenced discussion of both impacts (do not expect perfect balance) or offer a more critical discussion of the statement, perhaps querying what is meant by “everywhere” or “negative”.

At band E, expect both.

In a previous exam paper, candidates were asked to explain how global interactions are measured. It was therefore appropriate to ask for a different approach to be taken with this latest question. Candidates were asked to focus their thoughts on why attempts at quantifying global interactions might not be successful. A helpful steer was given with the words “observe” and “measure”, which provided two avenues for candidates to explore. Good answers thoughtfully considered how hard it might be to record certain types of illegal and legal global flows. Some candidates recognized that many types of data might be inaccurate and hard to measure reliably. A few thoughtful responses even focused on whether it is possible to track the transmission of ideas, trends or beliefs as they spread around the planet. Sadly, too many candidates reproduced a prepared response to a slightly different kind of critique and focused instead on the legitimacy of investigating certain types of global interaction. In such cases, one popular theme was a country’s involvement with UN peacekeeping missions. Certainly, the legitimacy of using this as a proxy indictor of a country’s level of globalization is open to question. However, it was not appropriate to do so as part of an answer to this particular question, given that peacekeeping missions can be observed and counted.

Good answers were seen which offered a synthetic range of both physical and human transformations, some negative but others positive. The best answers demonstrated good technique, by balancing the four corners of their answer well (physical – positive; physical – negative; human – positive; human – negative). A few even queried whether human changes could be categorized as positive or negative given that “beauty is in the eye of the beholder” (especially in relation to the global spread of eye-catching modernist architecture). Weaker answers typically failed to provide balance, or did not focus very well on the role of global interactions. Instead, such candidates wrote a much broader, unfocused answer that looked at the impacts of different societies on the environment.